2.The First World War and its aftermath

2.The First World War and its aftermath

1 Assess the reasons why the First World War was not ‘over by Christmas’ 1914.

"The war turned out to be quite different from what most people had anticipated. It was

widely expected to be a short, decisive affair, like other recent European wars"- Explain

1. The Germans failed to achieve the rapid defeat of France: although they penetrated deeply, Paris did not fall, and stalemate quickly developed on the western front, with all hope of a short war gone. 
2. Both sides dug themselves in and spent the next four years attacking and defending lines of trenches
3. In September the faltering Germans were attacked by the French under Joffre in the Battle of the Marne (see Map 2.1); they were driven back to the River Aisne, where they were able to dig trenches. This battle was vitally important; some historians regard it as one of the most decisive battles in modern history.
4. It ruined the Schlieffen Plan once and for all: France would not be knocked out in six weeks, and all hopes of a short war were dashed.
5. The Germans would have to face full-scale war on two fronts, which they had prob ably never intended.
6. The war of movement was over; the trench lines eventually stretched from the Alps to the Channel coast (see Map 2.2).
7. There was time for the British navy to bring its crippling blockade to bear on Germany’s ports.

(a) Stalemate in the west

The difficulties of trench warfare were always the same:What were they?

• There was barbed wire in no-man’s land between the two lines of opposing trenches, which the attacking side tried to clear away by a massive artillery bombardment; but this removed any chance of a quick surprise attack since the enemy always had plenty of warning.

• Reconnaissance aircraft and observation balloons could spot concentrations of troops on the roads leading up to the trenches.

• Trenches were difficult to capture because the increased firepower provided by magazine rifles and machine-guns made frontal attacks suicidal and meant that cavalry were useless.

• Even when a trench line was breached, advance was difficult because the ground had been churned up by the artillery barrage and there was more deadly machinegun fire to contend with.

• Any ground won was difficult to defend since it usually formed what was called a salient - a bulge in the trench line. The sides, or flanks, of these salients were vulnerable to attack, and troops could be surrounded and cut off.

• During the attack on Ypres in 1915, the Germans used poison gas, but when the wind changed direction it was blown back towards their own lines and they suffered more casualties then the Allies, especially when the Allies released some gas of their own.

(e) 'Unrestricted' submarine warfare (began January 1917 )

German success came in April 1917, when 430 ships were lost; Britain was down to about

six weeks’ corn supply, and although the USA came into the war in April, it was bound

to be several months before their help became effective. However, the situation was saved

by Lloyd George, who insisted that the Admiralty adopt a convoy system. A convoy was

a large number of merchant ships sailing together, so that they could be protected escorting warships. This drastically reduced losses and meant that the German gamble had failed. The submarine campaign was important because it brought the USA into the war.

The British navy therefore, helped by the Americans, played a vitally important role in the

defeat of the Central Powers; by the middle of 1918 it had achieved its three aims

QUESTIONS

1 Assess the reasons why the First World War was not ‘over by Christmas’ 1914.

2 Explain why the 1919 Peace Settlement provoked so much opposition among the

Germans.

3 To what extent was the Paris Peace Settlement shaped by the principle of selfdetermination?

ANSWER:  These settlements may seem harsh, but it has to be remembered that much of what was agreed had already happened; on the whole they did keep to the spirit of self-determina¬

tion. More people were placed under governments of their own nationality than ever

before in Europe, though they were not always as democratic as Wilson would have liked

(especially in Hungary and Poland). However, there were some deviations from the

pattern; for example the three million Germans (in the Sudetenland) who now found them¬

selves in Czechoslovakia, and the million Germans who were placed under Polish rule.

The Allies justified this on the grounds that the new states needed them in order to be

economically viable. It was unfortunate that both these cases gave Hitler an excuse to

begin territorial demands on these countries.

1.The world in 1914: outbreak of the First World War

1.The world in 1914: outbreak of the First World War

1.2 THE WORLD IN 1914

(a) Europe still dominated the rest of the world in 1914

1. Germany was the leading power in Europe both militarily and economically 
2. In 1914 the USA produced more coal, pig-iron and steel than either Germany or Britain and now ranked as a world power. 
3. Japan too had modernized rapidly and was a power to be reckoned with after her defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5.

(b) The political systems of these world powers varied widely

1. The USA, Britain and France had democratic forms of government
2. Germany had an elected lower house of parliament (Reichstag), but real power lay with the Chancellor (a sort of prime minister) and the Kaiser (emperor).
3. Italy was a monarchy with an elected parliament, but the franchise (right to vote) was limited to wealthy people. 
4. Japan had an elected lower house, but here too the franchise was restricted, and the emperor and the privy council held most of the power

(c) Imperial expansion after 1880

Imperialism is the building up of an empire by seizing territory overseas. Most of Africa was taken over by the European states in what became known as the ‘the Scramble for Africa’; the idea behind it was mainly to get control of new markets and new sources of raw materials

(d) Europe had divided itself into two alliance systems

The Triple Alliance: Germany

Austria-Hungary

Italy

The Triple Entente'. Britain

France

Russia

(e) Causes of friction

There were many causes of friction which threatened to upset the peace of Europe:

• There was naval rivalry between Britain and Germany.

• The French resented the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany at the end of the

Franco-Prussian War (1871).

• The Germans accused Britain, Russia and France of trying to ‘encircle’ them; the

Germans were also disappointed with the results of their expansionist policies

(known as Weltpolitik - literally ‘world policy’). Although they had taken posses¬

sion of some islands in the Pacific and some territory in Africa, their empire was

small in comparison with those of the other European powers, and not very reward¬

ing economically.

WHAT CAUSED THE WAR, AND WHO WAS TO BLAME?

It is difficult to analyse why the assassination in Sarajevo developed into a world war, and

even now historians cannot agree. Some blame Austria for being the first aggressor by

declaring war on Serbia; some blame the Russians because they were the first to order full

mobilization; some blame Germany for supporting Austria, and others blame the British

for not making it clear that they would definitely support France. If the Germans had

known this, so the argument goes, they would not have declared war on France, and the

fighting could have been restricted to eastern Europe.

The point which is beyond dispute is that the quarrel between Austria-Hungary and

Serbia sparked off the outbreak of war. The quarrel had become increasingly more explosive since 1908, and the Austrians seized on the assassination as the excuse for a preventive war with Serbia. They genuinely felt that if Serb and Slav nationalist ambitions for a state of Yugoslavia were achieved, it would cause the collapse of the Habsburg Empire;

Serbia must be curbed. In fairness, they probably hoped the war would remain localized,

like the Balkan Wars. The Austro-Serb quarrel explains the outbreak of the war, but not

why it became a world war. Here are some of the reasons which have been suggested for

the escalation of the war.

(a) The alliance system or 'armed camps' made war inevitable

(b) Colonial rivalry in Africa and the Far East

(c) The naval race between Britain and Germany

(d) Economic rivalry

(e) Russia made war more likely by supporting Serbia

(f) German backing for Austria was crucially important

                            Why did German policy towards Austria-Hungary change?

                         Germany deliberately planned for, and provoked

war with Russia, Britain and France in order to make Germany the dominant power

in the world, both economically and politically, and also as a way of dealing with

domestic tensions.

                         the Germans wanted war not

only because they felt encircled, but because they felt that the net was closing in on

them. They were threatened by superior British naval power and by the massive

Russian military expansion.

                       Germans but to make ‘preventive’ war in order to defeat their enemies before

they became too powerful.

                        Some historians reject both points 1 and 2 and suggest that Germany did not want

a major war at all; the Kaiser, Wilhelm II, and Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg

believed that if they took a strong line in support of Austria, that would frighten the

Russians into remaining neutral - a tragic miscalculation, if true.

(g) The mobilization plans of the great powers

(h) A 'tragedy of miscalculation'-How?

               • The Austrians miscalculated by thinking that Russia would not support Serbia.

               • Germany made a crucial mistake by promising to support Austria with no condi¬

tions attached; therefore the Germans were certainly guilty, as were the Austrians,

because they risked a major war.

               • Politicians in Russia and Germany miscalculated by assuming that mobilization

would not necessarily mean war.

               • If Ritter and Taylor are correct, this means that the generals, especially Moltke,

miscalculated by sticking rigidly to their plans in the belief that this would bring a

quick and decisive victory.

QUESTIONS

1 Explain why relations between the European states were so full of tensions in the early

years of the twentieth century.

2 How far would you agree that the arms race was only one of many causes of the First

World War?

1. No. not only arms race- even with dominant naval power Britain no war provoke.
2. Other factors are more important ..  desire to become powerful
3. Historic rivalry due to past wars
4. Imperialism

3 To what extent was Germany responsible for the outbreak of the First World War?

1. germany - arms race with Britain
2. Miscalulations
3. preventive war attitude
4. Need to become dominant power
5. Unconditional support for Austria